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Whether you’re on your way to a baby shower, a christening, or to the hospital to welcome your best friend’s baby into the world, a baby gift set should always be in tow. But don’t fret. Shopping for baby gifts doesn’t have to be so taxing.

They say you have to think like a mom if you’re getting a gift for a baby. The thing is, not everyone has had the blessing of motherhood, so therefore, not everyone can think like one. But you can, however, do certain things that will help you pick out a baby gift set that will be useful for the baby and will be appreciated by the mom.

Before you head out to the nearest baby store, you have to know the gender of the baby you’re shopping for. This will help you narrow down your choices. Next, keep in mind the mother’s personality and and the baby’s needs. Remember, babies still can’t appreciate gifts - they’re still babies after all. You want to get sensible baby gifts that moms can use for the babies, something adorable that will also help out the mom when it comes to budgeting for her baby’s stuff.

The following are some of the most wonderful baby gift sets to help you save time browsing baby gift set catalogs and hopping from one baby store to the next.

Welcome to the World Baby Wagon Ten-Piece Gift Set

This is one unique gift set that moms will surely love. The wagon is beautifully designed with teddy bear details at a summertime frolic. Inside the wagon, you’ll find a complete bath gift set and layette with charming teddy bear designs and inscriptions. This baby gift set comes in two colors, pink and blue.

Each set includes the “bear-y sleepy” receiving blanket, “bear-y clean” hooded trerry cloth towel, “bear-y sleepy” sleeping gown, “bear-y special short-sleeved onesie, “bear-y special” long-sleeved onesie, “bear-y hungry” bib, “bear-y messy” burb cloth, terry velor washcloth, a pair of adorable booties, bath items for 0-6 month old babies, and a snuggly hat Layette. All items are made of 100% soft, interlock cotton which makes clean up easy. The wagon measure 16′ x 11′ x 8′ and comes fully equipped with four rolling wheels, so the baby gets to enjoy your gift when she gets older.

Jo Jo Giraffe Two Piece Plush Gift Set in Keepsake Box

This cute baby gift set is comprised of a bright yellow plush 30×60 blanket with Jo Jo’s image embossed on it, keepsake giraffe-themed box, and, of course, Jo Jo, a cuddly 12″ tall giraffe. The blanket is enclosed in the keepsake box, which in turn is hugged by Jo Jo. What’s great about this gift is you can personalize it by having the baby’s name embossed on the blanket.

21-Piece Gift Set

This is a particularly great baby gift set that will be appreciated by moms. The set includes 8 wash cloths, 7 bibs, a rattle, comb and brush, a teething ring, and a spoon and fork set. All the items come in assorted pastel colors, so you dont have to worry about getting getting the right color for a baby girl or a baby boy.

Get a practical baby gift set that will be appreciated by moms. Check out these personalized baby shower gifts and baby personalized gifts for great baby gift ideas. Visit BabyLandGifts.com today.

Time waits for no man but the classic beauty of Howard Miller grandfather clocks always show off time in elegant seconds. If you’re thinking of Mother’s Day, weddings and children starting homes of their own, these clocks are the ideal gifts to show how much you care. But choose one that makes the perfect personality fit.

Gifts Too Hard To Beat

Giving one of those Howard Miller grandfather clocks as wedding gifts beats all the pretenders to the throne. Of course, it may be a bit costly than your average clock on the mantel, but these clocks sure packs a wallop as gifts. Nobody, even the self-professed Internet rant, can refuse these clocks. With each tick of the clock, memories are stored and stories are retold from one generation to the next, so who can refuse such a gift of time?

What makes these Howard Miller grandfather clocks special? Underneath that magical antique-looking exterior that captures another time and another place is the perfect fusion of technology and craftsmanship. Artistry, technology, and tradition combined make these clocks perfect gifts for young couples starting out on their own.

When giving a loved one a gift to remember, indulge. The gift of time and tradition will never go out of style. Make the right selection with designs you can fit with a specific personality types:

* Traditional antique-styled clocks

* Clocks with contemporary designs

* Clocks with antique brass designs but with modern exteriors

* Clocks with shelves to display cherished collections

Choosing the Howard Miller Grandfather Clocks

Selecting a grandfather clock can be a dizzying task if you do not organize a shopping system. With so many designs available, you lose track of what matters most - choosing the right clock for your son or daughter, your mom, or for your daughter-in-law.

These clocks require an investment of your time, not to mention the money you will be spending on it, but your efforts will be handsomely rewarded if you just know how to look. Start by matching the clock with the personality of the person who is going to receive it.

Traditional Clocks - Howard Miller grandfather clocks with the traditional antique look are the selections of cherry heartwood casings with the customary brass weights and pendulums. The Adams floor clock from Howard Miller is a classic example of the traditional design. These are perfect for couples or individuals who respect family traditions and would like to start their own.

Contemporary Designs - Instead of the usual wooden casing the design boasts of an aluminum frame supported by a heavy round base and instead of the weights and pendulum, the motion of the clock is controlled by the electromagnetic drive housed in the base. The white dials and black hour and minute hands add to the aluminum appeal of the design. The Tempo floor clock fits the gung-ho personality who dares to experiment.

Antique Brass Look - The distinguishing iron framework of the Mercer Floor clock from Howard Miller adds a touch of romance to the overall look of the dramatic charcoal finish of the face. The exposed pendulum echoes the charcoal finish and is encased by the wrought iron. You can give this type of clock to the adventurous romantic who adores nature and wide open spaces or the outdoors.

Curio Clocks - The enthusiastic collector who loves dainty little things is the perfect match for the curio clock.

All these Howard Miller grandfather clocks have the modern features to maintain the classic function of antique or modern long clocks to adorn contemporary homes. It’s a matter choosing the right one for the right personality for years of pleasure and pride.

Thinking of great gifts for a loved one? Check out Howard Miller grandfather clocks. Also check out the really cool gifts for men like pocket watch accessories. Visit ExecutiveGiftShoppe.com today for more gift ideas within budget.

Shopping for baby shower party gifts can be quite challenging and tiring. Nobody wants to spend an entire afternoon shopping for a gift that will go unappreciated. If you want to score the perfect bay shower gift, read on.

Where To Shop

The first step in shopping for a baby shower party gift is to make sure you go to a store that has enough choices of what you have in mind from different categories so that you have a fair selection to choose from. Going to a store that specializes in just one item is useless because when you find that they have nothing that strikes your fancy, then you’ll have to hop to another store. And this can be pretty stressful.

When picking the store to shop from, whether it’s a large retail company or a local store, make sure that they have a variety of items for the baby and the mom. A good store to go is one that would have baby clothing, accessories, hats, shoes, blanket, and diaper bags.

Baby Shower Party Gifts For The Mom

Don’t forget that you have to keep the mother in mind when picking the gift. If you’re going to a close friend’s baby shower, make sure to pick a present that will reflect the mother’s personality and style, something that will be useful for the nursery and something that she will also enjoy.

Books and knickknacks are great baby shower party gifts for the mom. Books are always appreciated. If you know that the parents have yet to decide on a name for the child, you can get them a name book. If the mother is on the early part of her pregnancy, get her a pregnancy book that will guide her through the rest of the month.

Another great thing to get for the mom would be a specialty diaper bag. There are a lot of stylish diaper bags that are fun to carry around. When shopping for a diaper bag, choose one that converts to a backpack or a purse, so that the mom gets different carrying options. Also, don’t forget to choose a diaper bag that has lots of space and pockets inside, so that it’s easy for the mom to organize the baby stuff.

Fun things you can get for the nursery are picture frames and photo albums. These things are never left on their boxes because most people take a gazillion pictures of their baby. And what better way to keep those pictures than in cute picture frame or photo album. If you know the theme of the nursery, you can get little stuffed animals or night lights.

Baby Shower Party Gifts For the Baby

If you’re going to a baby shower for your niece, nephew, or godchild, you might want to pick something that is more reflective of your relationship with the child and the bond you want to keep with him or her.

Personalized clothing and blanket are great baby shower party gifts. You can have the child’s name embroidered onto the cloth, or a fun line like “Aunt’s Little Angel” or “God sent Godson”. If you have yet to find out the baby’s sex, opt for safer designs - that means less ribbons and flowers. Don’t worry so much about the color. Just get fun colors because babies can wear any color!

Shopping for baby shower party gifts for your best friend’s baby shower? Look for unique personalized baby gifts and baby gift sets that will be much appreciated by the mom-to-be. Visit BabyLandGifts.com today.

If you’re looking for great baby girl gift sets for your new niece, here’s a tip: nothing announces and welcomes the arrival of a pretty little girl more than pink. Whether you’re getting a diaper bag, a teddy bear, or a blanket, make sure you sprinkle a little pink on it.

Looking for the perfect gift for a baby is made easier when you know whether you’re getting one for a little boy or girl. In this case, ‘color’ is your keyword. Although babies can wear any color, blues are usually reserved for the boys and pinks for the girls. Here are a few of the hippest baby girl gift sets you can choose from.

Oriental Flower Gift Set by Inch Blue

This is among those irresistible baby girl gift sets around. The set includes a footless white babygro in 100% cotton adorned with pink oriental flowers and a little blue bird and beautiful handmade leather shoes with the same design. The set comes in two sizes - 0 to 6 months and 6 to 12 months - and is presented in a pink box.

Personalized Little Princess Baby Album

You can never go wrong with a baby album. This album comes in an elegant and classic design. It’s silver plated and comes with a pink stand. Aside from keeping the babies’ pictures in tact, it also serves as a beautiful nursery decor.

Baby Girl Bottle Gift Set

This is one of the practical baby girl gift sets that will be well-appreciated by mommy. It’s a large, pink bottle bank that contains baby necessities like juice cups, baby bottles, bottle brush, nipple brush, teether, snack cup with lid, forl and spoon, baby bowl with lid, and a rattle, which are also in pink.

Baby Girl Footprint Keepsake Shoe Box

This pretty, pink gift set is the perfect thing to keep the babies first shoes in. The set also comes with supplies and instructions for the baby’s foot print impression which is displayed on the box’s lid.

Baby Star Crib Bedding for Girls

Do away with traditional, white bedding designs, and add life to the baby’s nursery with these pink baby girl gift sets. There are a lot of fun, playful designs you can choose from. If you want to be generous, you can go ahead and get three or more designs, so that the baby’s nursery is always hip.

Personalized Baby Girl Blankie Bauddie

Every child should have a comfort blanket, so you know you won’t go wrong with this gift. This personalized pink blanket is the perfect gift for a precious little girl.

Baby Girl Boo Bunnie Ice Pack

As she grows old, the little girl will eventually get bumps and bruises, trying to explore the world. This is another one of those most practical baby girl gift sets you can give. It will come in handy for mommy as she comforts her little girl.

With these gift items, you’ll make both baby and mommy happy. If you want to, you can also choose items in basic colors such as white and silver and just pick out a separate gift box in pink. Choose a box in beautiful, trendy design so that it can also be used as a keepsake box.

‘Pink’ spells ‘girl’ in baby girl gifts sets. Color is the keyword when getting the perfect baby gifts for your precious little one. Visit BabyLandGifts.com for unique baby shower gifts.

It may very well be the last thing that is discussed when someone is planning for college, but financial planning is essential and very serious business. Secondary education can be rather expensive and without the necessary planning, some families can find themselves left struggling to find the money.

College can cost up to $50,000 per year, for housing and tuition alone. By planning as early as possible and saving often, you can be sure that your child will get the best education available.

Here are several quick tips to get you started.

1. Saving: Without a doubt, the easiest way to pay for college would be to save your funds. Unfortunately, for most families, saving enough money simply isn’t possible.

You should still save as much money as you can. The parents can still contribute to their own education fund and the student can save his/her money through high school years. Instead of wasting your money on an expensive mobile phone plan, consider putting that money into a monthly savings account.

2. Scholarships: the next route you can consider is a scholarship. This money need not be paid back and can prove to be a big help in paying for college. Scholarships can be acquired from businesses, high schools, colleges, religious groups, individuals and more. There are both need-based and merit based scholarship programs.

A student at high school should opt to apply to as may scholarship programs as possible. There are numerous online search services that can help. You can find other scholarship programs through school also, high school counsellors can prove to be a big help in this area.

The application process for applying for scholarships can prove to be just as complicated as a college application. The earlier you start with this, the better your chances are of success.

3. Work-Study Programs: Another option you can choose is a work study program. These government run programs pay colleges to employ students in part time jobs in exchange for housing and tuition. This program is predominately needs based and works on a first come first serve basis.

4. Tax Benefits: there are certain tax benefits for both parents and students paying for college. The lifetime Earning Credit and the Hope Scholarship Credit are both examples of this. Consider having your taxes worked out by a certified accountant during your college years. They will know how to find the deductions and if paying for your first year will save you up to $2,000 in income tax, then that money can go towards your next year. There are also benefits on the interest earned on accounts used to pay for college.

5. Student Jobs: one common way a lot of students end up paying for their college tuition is through work. A part time job after college is another way to pay for your college years.

6. Financial Aid: Probably the most common way to pay for your college education is through financial aid. Each college generally has their own program, but they will all require the FAFSA. This is pretty-much where you should start. Again, it is on a first come, first serve basis. Financial aid packages come usually as a combination of grants and loans and they are based solely on the family’s needs. Most colleges will require the financial aid application along with your college application.

Don’t immediately write off a better college because of funding. Save your money early and work to find that scholarship. By doing so, you start on the right foot. You should see college education as an investment and thus, do what ever it takes to get one.

Uchenna Ani-Okoye is an internet marketing advisor and co founder of Free Affiliate Programs For more information and resource links on college financial planning visit: College Financial Planning

When the children begin to toddle, they behave actively and scamper about, and they are unaware of tiredness in whole day. Some parents think that the games are physical activities, so they are not good for intelligence. Actually, it is not so. The children play the games joyously with scientific guide from adults, which is very helpful to intellectual development of children. Games are not only the world of children, but also the world created by them. There are five benefits of games to the intellectual development of children:

Firstly, the convivial, delightful, and vivacious atmosphere is the significant environment to cultivate the initiative, creative spirit and elaborative faculty of children. Joyful emotion of children is an important environmental factor for the formation of growth and sound psychology. The children, who are devoid of the love from parents and are always beaten and scolded by parents, lack convivial atmosphere; therefore, their intellect and health conditions are not fine. The games could build joyful mood and leave profound memory trace in Children’s mind, so they are the active means to develop the intellect of children.

Secondly, games are propitious to the formation of children’s quick response and judgment capability. The children need to make response and judgment in games; however, this kind of response and judgment is quite dramatic and lively. Unconsciously, the children cultivate quick reflection and response ability, which is very helpful to the brain growth for the children in this stage.

Thirdly, games are good for developing children’s imagination and ideation. Some visual games, such as “Hawk snatches chick”, etc, could develop children’s imagination, while the children could consider how to win and why they fail in the game.

Fourthly, the games make for cultivating the interest of physical and intellectual activities from children and inspiring their aspiration to knowledge. In childhood, they often gradually apperceive and cognize the world through some games. The secret of genius lies in strong interest and boundless passion, and the games add a portion of power for the genius.

Fifthly, games redound to train the willpower of positive confidence and effort for children to gain their ends, which is an extremely important psychology quality for children to become useful people. The accomplished scientists and inventors all have striking confidence and willpower; whereas the children have so clinging expression and vigorous energy to capture the victory in the games, which is just the bud to cultivate these two psychology qualities.

After the parents know the benefits and importance of games, they will not think playing the games is a behavior of wasting time and will not always ask the children to spare all their time on playing piano or learning painting and calligraphy. Therefore, in the games, some scrupulous parents could observe children’s ideality, desire, anxiety, etc. The game is the first success for children on culture and psychology; they express their own thought and sentiment which could not deliver in the games, and sometimes, they even depend on games to overcome now or past complicated mental harassment.

In order to make the games have better effect on children’s physical and mental health, parents could combine the games with edifying the thought of children; that is, when children play the games, parents may put forward various questions to make children reflect. Parents also could participate in the games with children, which make children feel more happiness and avail to the sound mentality formation of children. Simultaneously, parents shall pay attention to that physical games should not be too tired while cerebral games should not be too long.

Free Games and Online Games

Collecting coins is a longer term goal, however, the happiness of pursuit is always more important than the rapid completion of a set of coins. The inherent enjoyment is always found in the process of collecting, and fulfillment is found in its completion. Once fulfilled, a new goal, set quickly, will begin a new road towards further pursuits of happiness.

A solid collection will always have a solid value, at any level or grade. Higher grades, of course, will generate higher returns and higher appreciation. The higher grades will require longer term goals, a greater amount of money, and higher levels of frustration and more patience. For that reason, it is best to collect at a gradual or graduating rate, acquiring graded coins in steps, until your “goal coin” is finally acquired for your collection. These gradual steps will offer continuous levels of enjoyment, but with more positive progress and happier dispositions.

If collecting a set of Sacagawea dollars, one will experience difficulties in acquiring the Mint States more frequently than in collecting Proof coins. Sacagaweas are not unique in this respect; as this difficulty is shared by the majority of coin collecting categories. Probably for reasons of popularity, and greater ease of acquisition, modern proof coins are easier and less time consuming to acquire. For the serious collector, the extra challenge of collecting Mint State coins, modern or rare, will be more invigorating, exciting and rewarding. Now that we have four top grading companies that strictly follow the ANA guidelines (NGC, PCGS, ICG and ANACS), acquiring quality coins with a reliable grade is consistently possible. Availability still depends upon the laws of supply and demand; but this is always the challenge.

Despite the high level of your personal abilities to grade a coin, the reason that we invest in coins that are certified and graded by the “Top Four”, is that it creates a market for us when we want to upgrade and sell. It is not our opinion of the grade that matters, it is what will bring us the greatest return on our investment of time and money. The grade of a coin is everything. Coin prices are based on the grade. Buyers want the highest grade, but more important to them is an accurate and reliable grade. Personal opinions on the grade of a coin are never satisfying. Therefore, a professionally certified and graded coin eliminates the biggest issue in buying and selling a coin.

The Top Four give us stability, reliability and reputation. They also guarantee the grade and authenticity of the coin. This we need to market our coins, when we upgrade and sell. Buying raw coins is always an invitation to get cheated; someone usually loses, and the grade is always in question. Investing in raw coins should be avoided by the average collector, when possible. An alternative is to agree to pay for the cost of grading and the coin, if the grade represented by the Seller (or higher) is the result; if not, the Seller pays for grading.

The added protection from a sealed case – a slab - will greatly inhibit deterioration of the coin from exposure and damage. It will also enhance the maintenance of the coin’s grade and its appreciation. Marketing coins we need to upgrade and sell is enhanced with certified and graded coins, since: 1) there are larger pools of buyers; 2) the issue of grade is eliminated; and, 3) selling at book value and above is far more likely. People don’t mind paying a fair price for a solid coin, but do mind getting cheated for a misrepresented grade.

Don’t hesitate to buy a coin in a grade lower than you hope for or strive to acquire. One must consider that the average collectable coin is constantly appreciating; although not always at a steady or consistent rate. The Laws of Supply and Demand always have a hand in the value or worth of any coin. Having an investment in a coin is preferable to no investment. A savings account earning 3% interest is no investment, and yields no enjoyment.

Stepping up, or improving your coin’s grade, in a graduated process, is far more pleasing because it adds more activity, allows completion of sets (albeit temporary for the actual grade desired), the cost is less or spread out, and makes for continuous progress. The fewer numbers of coins available in the next higher grade, the costs of each upgrade being higher, and putting a higher value on your time, makes the approach of buying only the “goal coin” undesirable. Doing so will degrade your progress, enjoyment and appreciation.

The challenge of graduated acquisition will last longer, adding to the thrill of each new addition. With each higher step up, comes a higher investment in time, your patience, and money. Secondly, the coin you have will be appreciating, while the collector striving for the “goal coin”, may be waiting months and years to find the right coin – with no benefits to him in the mean time. Thirdly, your collection will be growing, and so will your appreciation of what you have. How quickly you can complete your collection is not the goal; it’s the path you take to get there.

Finally, don’t be overly concerned about either getting a bargain, or paying book value or more. The value and worth of your collection will not be greatly affected by either. Time spent getting a bargain price is the single most commonly wasted activity. Your time, not spent in the happiness of pursuit, is wasted. Bidding on 20 different auctions with a goal of getting a bargain price is foolishly applying one’s time.

“Teach us to make the most of our time,

so that we may grow in wisdom.”

B Psalm 90:12

Our time holds a far greater value than each of us wants to admit. It should not be wasted, but spent in positive thoughts and endeavors. It is better to pay book value, avoiding the stress and waste of time, thereby investing your time on more rewarding pursuits.

Enjoy collecting.

Robert L Taylor, JD

Copyright 2008, Robert L Taylor, JD

Robert Taylor is a retired lawyer from Denver, CO who has had a passion for collecting US coins since age 6. Wanting to share his passion, he created http://www.ThePerfect-Coin.com featuring Rare and Modern coins.

Igneous…ignite! And that’s just what happens when igneous rocks form. Fiercely hot molten rock from deep inside the earth pushes its way out and lights everything in its path on fire. As the firey liquid cools, it forms igneous rocks.

Rock types are organized, or classified, according to how the rock formed. It’s a pretty simple system and there are only three types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Their names give clues about how the rocks were formed.

Earth’s Mantle

Under the crust is the fiery hot mantle. Saying that the mantle is fiery hot does it injustice. The coolest outer part of the mantle is about 1000 degrees Celsius (1800 degrees Fahrenheit). Here the rock is molten liquid, white hot.

All Magma is made up of a fairly uniform mixture of elements. Some of the major elements present are silica, iron, sodium, potassium, aluminum, magnesium, and gasses including water vapor, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and sulfur dioxide. These elements form chemical combinations that crystallize in patterns to form eight basic rock forming minerals. These eight minerals form most rock. They are olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, orthoclase, plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, and quartz.

Igneous Rock Formation

Igneous rocks are formed from this molten magma. These rocks form when the magma cools and crystallizes. This can happen above ground as with volcanoes it is then called extrusive.

There are many kinds of volcanoes around the world. The materials that come from a volcano are different as well. We tend to lump them all under the term lava but rocks ranging from the very dense basalt to the very light pumice are just a part of what can come from a volcano. There is also ash, volcanic glass or obsidian, and the gem stone peridot to name a few.

The molten magma can also crystalize below the surface. When the molten rock rises in the crust but cools before it reaches the surface it is plutonic igneous rock and is categorized as intrusive.

Cool Enough

When the magma reaches the surface it cools quickly, a matter of days or weeks.

When the magma forms pockets underground it cools much more slowly. This could take thousands or even millions of years.

The rate at which the magma cools determines the kind of rocks that are formed. Faster cooling surface lava creates rock that is fine grained or aphanitic. The rapid cooling doesn’t allow large crystals to form. I addition most of the gasses are driven off into the atmosphere.

The slower cooling that takes place underground allows larger crystal formation. Granite is an example of this type of rock formation.

Other igneous rocks are pumice, scoria, gabbro, basalt, ryolite, dacite, andesite and obsidian.

Rocks are, after all, the history books of the earth’s extremely long life. The conditions during the formation left marks that one can learn to read, thereby discovering what happened to make a particular kind of rock in a particular place at a particular time.

Learn more about igneous rocks at http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com. You can find rocks and minerals for sale at www.fossilicious.com

Teacher candidates studying for the CSET need to know about the digestive system. The section of the CSET that you will likely see this type of question appear is Subtest II Science.

Science questions testing your knowledge of the digestive process are very common on all science exams and so the chances of such a question appearing on the CSET are high.

We will first outline the stages in the digestive process and then review the major body parts involved in digestion.

Stages in the Digestive Process

Movement: moves food through the digestive system

Secretion: release of digestive juices in response to a specific stimulus

Digestion: breakdown of food into molecular components small enough to cross the plasma membrane

Absorption: passage of the molecules into the body’s interior and their passage throughout the body

Elimination: removal of undigested food and wastes

The human digestive system is a coiled, muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus. Several specialized compartments occur along this length: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.

The Mouth

Mechanical breakdown begins in the mouth by chewing (teeth) and actions of the tongue. Chemical breakdown of starch by production of salivary amylase from the salivary glands. This mixture of food and saliva is then pushed into the pharynx and esophagus. The esophagus is a muscular tube whose muscular contractions (peristalsis) propel food to the stomach.

The Stomach

Epithelial cells line inner surface of the stomach, and secrete about 2 liters of gastric juices per day. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, and mucus; ingredients important in digestion. Secretions are controlled by nervous (smells, thoughts, and caffeine) and endocrine signals. The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) lowers pH of the stomach so pepsin is activated. Pepsin is an enzyme that controls the hydrolysis of proteins into peptides. The stomach also mechanically churns the food. Chyme, the mix of acid and food in the stomach, leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is the major site for digestion and absorption of nutrients. The small intestine is up to 6 meters long and is 2-3 centimeters wide. The upper part, the duodenum, is the most active in digestion. Secretions from the liver and pancreas are used for digestion in the duodenum. Epithelial cells of the duodenum secrete a watery mucus. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and stomach acid-neutralizing bicarbonate. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder before entering the bile duct into the duodenum.

The Large Intestine

Material in the large intestine is mostly indigestible residue and liquid. Movements are due to involuntary contractions that shuffle contents back and forth and propulsive contractions that move material through the large intestine.

Secretions in the large intestine are an alkaline mucus that protects epithelial tissues and neutralizes acids produced by bacterial metabolism. Water, salts, and vitamins are absorbed, the remaining contents in the lumen form feces (mostly cellulose, bacteria, bilirubin). Bacteria in the large intestine, such as E. coli, produce vitamins (including vitamin K) that are absorbed.

Mark Buckingway is a CSET expert who writes for Ace the CSET.com because everyone, (even Tiger Woods) needs a coach.

Teacher candidates studying for the CSET should be able to describe the physics of aluminum foil. This type of question will appear in the Subtest II Science portion of the CSET.

A question asking you to describe the physics of aluminum foil has a very high chance of being on your CSET. Understanding the physics of foil involves knowing about many different types of scientific principles such as: conduction, convection, radiation, emissivity, and absorption.

Depending on which version of the CSET test you get, you may not have the aluminum foil question. But I can guarantee you will have a question on heat transfer no matter which version of the CSET exam you receive. Heat transfer is a core knowledge requirement for all science exams.

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Of the three, radiation is the primary mode; conduction and convection are secondary and come into play only as matter interrupts or interferes with radiant heat transfer. As the matter absorbs radiant energy, it is heated, develops a difference in temperature, and results in molecular motion (conduction in solids) or mass motion (convection in liquids and gas).

All substances, including air spaces, building materials, such as wood, glass and plaster, and insulation, obey the same laws of nature, and transfer heat. Solid materials differ only in the rate of heat transfer which is mainly affected by differences in: density, weight, shape, permeability and molecular structure, Materials which transfer heat slowly can be said to resist heat flow.

Conduction is direct heat flow through matter (molecular motion). It results from actual physical contact of one body with another. For example, if one end of an iron rod is heated, the heat travels by conduction through the metal to the other end; it also travels to the surface and is conducted to the surrounding air which is another, but less dense, body. An example of conduction through contact between two solids is a cooking pot on the solid surface of a hot stove. The greatest flow of heat possible between materials is where there is direct conduction between solids. Heat is always conducted from warm to cold; never from cold to warm, and always moves via the shortest path of least resistance.

Convection is the transport of heat within a gas or liquid, caused by the actual flow of material itself (mass motion). In building spaces, natural convection heat flow is mostly upward, not downwards. This is called “free convection”.

For example, a warm stove, person, floor, wall, etc., loses heat by conduction to the cooler air in contact with it. This added heat activated (warms) the molecules of the air which expand, becoming less dense, and rise. Cooler, heavier air rushes in from the side and below to replace it. Notice the smoke that rises from a cigarette. The motion is upward, with a component of sideways motion. Convection may also be mechanically induced by a fan. This is called “forced convection”.

Radiation is the transmission of electromagnetic rays through space. Radiation is invisible. Infrared rays occur between light and radar waves. Thus, when we speak of radiation, we refer only to infrared rays. Each material whose temperature is above absolute zero emits infrared radiation, including: the sun, icebergs, stoves or radiators, humans, animals, furniture, ceilings, walls, floors, etc.

All objects radiate infrared rays from their surfaces in all directions, until they are reflected or absorbed by another object. Traveling at the speed of light, these rays are invisible, and they have no temperature, only energy. Heating an object excites the surface molecules, causing them to give off infrared radiation. When these infrared rays strike the surface of another object, the rays are absorbed, and only then is heat produces in the object. This heat spreads throughout the mass by conduction. The heated object then transmits infrared rays from exposed surfaces by radiation, if these surfaces are exposed directly to an air space.

The amount of radiation emitted is a function of the emissivity factor of the source’s surface. Emissivity is the rate at which radiation (emission) is given off. Absorption of radiation of an object is proportional to the absorptivity factor of its surface which is reciprocal of its emissivity.

The surface of aluminum has the ability not to absorb, but reflect, 95% of the infrared rays which strike it. Since aluminum has such a low mass to air ration, very little conduction can take place, particularly when only 5% of the rays are absorbed.

Heat control with aluminum foil is made possible by taking advantage of its low thermal emissivity and the low thermal conductivity of the air. It is possible with layered foil and air to practically eliminate heat transfer by radiation and convection: a fact employed regularly by the NASA space program. In the space vehicle Columbia, ceramic tiles are imbedded with aluminum bits which reflect heat before it can be absorbed. “Moon suits” are made of reflective foil surfaces surrounding trapped air for major temperature modification.

Aluminum Foil, with its reflective surface can block the flow of radiation. Most aluminum insulation has only a 5% absorption and emissivity ratio. It is impervious to water vapor and convection currents, and reflects 95% of all radiant energy which strikes its surface.

Peter Lorison is a CSET coach who writes for Ace the CSET, because everyone (even Tiger Woods) needs a coach.